Paradigm:以太坊的新“质押”模式并没有使ETH成为一种证券

1. 简介在以太坊过渡到权益证明共识机制(“合并”)之后,不同的评论家认为,以太坊的新质押模式可能导致其原始代币以太币(ETH)被视为美国证券法下的证券。然而,这些论点将Howey测试的解释延伸到了无

Paradigm:以太坊的新“质押”模式并没有使ETH成为一种证券

1. 简介

在以太坊过渡到权益证明共识机制(“合并”)之后,不同的评论家认为,以太坊的新质押模式可能导致其原始代币以太币(ETH)被视为美国证券法下的证券。

然而,这些论点将Howey测试的解释延伸到了无以复加的地步,并且没有认识到证券法的根本目的是解决信息不对称的问题,而在这种情况下,信息不对称并不存在。

正如下文所解释的,以太坊采用权益证明的共识机制并没有使ETH(甚至是有质押的ETH)成为投资合同,这样的结论将证明证券法的在以太坊上的应用是无意义。

2. 证券法入门

美国证券法要求发行人向美国证券交易委员会登记任何证券的发售或销售,除非有豁免权。2 登记意味着强制披露,确保与投资者分享重大信息,以便作出知情决策,防止信息不对称,并避免代理问题。

1933年证券法列举了构成“证券”的工具类型,其中包括“投资合同”。3 根据最高法院在Howey案中的开创性意见,“投资合同”需要(1)资金的投资;(2)在一个共同的企业中;(3)对利润的合理预期;(4)完全来自他人的努力。

在解释“投资合同”的裁决中,法院拒绝了对法规的字面解释,而是采用了灵活的解释,重点关注发起人和投资者之间关系的“经济现实”。5 在各种情况下,如果各方之间的基本经济关系不是投资者和发起人之间的关系,法院应用经济现实概念来限制“投资合同”的范围和证券法的适用。

3. Howey对以太坊权益证明的应用

以太坊采用的质押证明共识机制,使得不同的评论者认为ETH,或者更具体地说,质押ETH的行为,可能符合Howey的投资合同定义。该论点的结构如下:作为验证者质押ETH符合Howey测试,因为验证者(1)通过锁定32个ETH进行质押来 “投资金钱”,(2)参与验证过程的各方组成的“共同企业”,(3)期望以质押奖励的形式获得利润,(4)这些奖励来自其他验证者或参与验证过程的其他各方的努力。

姑且不论验证者将ETH存入智能合约是否符合“资金投资”的条件,9 以太坊采用质押证明导致ETH被视为投资合约的论点从根本上误解了Howey的第二和第四条原则,任何一条原则的失败都是致命的。这个结论也会导致对证券法的荒谬和不必要的适用,因为没有任何发行人或发起人有获取信息的特权,可以或应该被强迫进行披露。

3a. 利益证明不涉及“共同企业”

3ai. 法律标准

正如最高法院在Howey案中所说,投资合同的一个重要组成部分是“共同企业”。10 虽然一些法院认为只有在存在“横向共同性”时才存在共同企业,11 但其他法院认为“纵向共同性”足以满足Howey案的这一原则。

3aii. 验证人之间不存在“横向共同性”

当每个投资者的财富通过“汇集资产,通常与按比例分配利润相结合”而与其他投资者的财富联系在一起时,就存在横向共同性。换句话说,法院强调,横向共同性要求投资者的预期利润“通过发起人的创业努力”与其他投资者联系在一起。15 因此,横向共同性要求投资者放弃对利润的任何个人化要求,以换取对发起人随后分配的利润的参与性和按比例的利益。

有些人错误地认为,质押ETH意味着横向共同性,因为验证者将ETH存入一个智能合约地址,据称这意味着“资产池”,17 或者据称横向共同性被发现,因为验证者之间存在着感知的“合作”。

要成为以太坊网络的验证者,需要将32个ETH存入一个智能合约地址(称为“存款合约”)。19 然而,将ETH存入存款合约并不是“集合”,因为 ETH永远不会受到发起人的任意控制,发起人可以使用它来为普通企业创造价值。相反,质押 ETH 的目的是创建一种保护网络的激励机制;它确保验证者在游戏中有所作为,这样他们就可以因不诚实的行为而受到惩罚。此外,虽然每个验证者的 ETH 都存放在存款合约中,但它不会混合并保持可区分性。一旦在以后的网络升级中实施了该功能,每个验证者也将能够撤回其质押的 ETH。

个人验证者也没有对企业产生的任何利润按比例分配的参与权。正如下文进一步解释的那样,不同的验证人的回报是不同的,主要是根据每个验证人的个人努力来决定的;他们的财富不会因为任何发起人的创业努力而一起上升和下降。20 因此,在分析质押交易的经济现实时,法院应该发现不存在横向共同性。

3aiii. 验证人之间不存在“纵向共同性”

一些法院认为,Howey的共同企业原则也可以通过纵向共同性来满足,纵向共同性的重点是“发起人和投资者主体之间的关系” 22 。

一般来说,以太坊网络的成功或运行不依赖于任何关键方;它是“充分去中心化的”。23 为了确保去中心化,以太坊的共识机制允许验证者在不依赖任何第三方的情况下自我有效地运行。验证者自由和自愿地来到网络,他们可以自行选择停止参与。验证者可以在不依赖任何人的情况下履行他们在网络中的角色。如果他们根据网络的规则正确地履行他们的职责,他们将根据这些规则获得奖励,而不是根据推广者的努力。

具体到质押交易的经济现实,很明显,不存在验证人所依赖的推广人。由于纵向共同性要求“投资者的命运”与发起人的命运“联系在一起……”24 没有发起人就结束了调查。

3b. 质押ETH不符合Howey的“他人的努力”这一原则

3bi. 法律标准

根据最高法院在Howey案中的最初表述,投资合同的要求之一是投资者期望“完全来自于发起人或第三方的努力”。25 这一标准已经被上诉法院淡化,它们已经读出了“完全”,转而关注发起人的努力是否“不可否认的重要”26 和“影响企业成败的基本管理努力”。 27 根据美国证券交易委员会的指导意见,这些努力的典型特征是“通过运用技能和判断力影响企业成功的专业知识和决策”28。

与此相反,法院关注的是投资者是否有“控制其自己投资的盈利能力”。29 投资者依靠自己的努力获得利润的程度越高,根据Howey将相关交易定性为投资合同的理由就越弱。在这些情况下,适用证券法或披露要求是不必要的,因为所有权和控制权没有分离。30 法院进一步列出了几个因素(称为“Schaden因素”)来测试投资者的“控制能力”31 (按重要性顺序列出)。(1)投资者的信息获取,(2)投资者的合同权力,(3)投资者的贡献或时间和努力,(4)融资的充分性,(5)商业风险的性质,以及(6)投机的程度。

3bii. 对以太坊的应用

一些人认为,以太坊从工作证明到权益证明的过渡也是从竞争机制到更“合作”机制的过渡32,因为质押证明中的验证过程需要多方参与。根据这种观点,在质押ETH时,每个验证者都合理地期望通过依靠其他验证者的努力来获得质押奖励。

这一论点得到了低层次实施细节的支持,即在以太坊独特的质押证明协议下,验证者被分成了委员会。

更重要的是,这个论点误解了以太坊的权益证明实施中验证人奖励的机制,并将Howey要求“完全依靠他人的努力”的原始标准淡化到了前所未有的程度。正如我们在下面解释的那样,以太坊的验证者与矿工在合并前的工作证明网络中合作无间,并不期望从其他验证者的重大管理努力中获得回报,而是主要期望从自己的努力和资金中获得回报。为了理解为什么会这样,对验证者在以太坊的权益证明网络中可以获得的奖励有一个基本的了解是有帮助的。

3bii1. 以太坊权益证明网络中的验证者奖励

有很多因素会影响到验证者奖励的计算。在以太坊的质押证明实施中,验证者每隔一个纪元(6.4分钟)就会收到奖励,这些奖励是以“基本奖励”的倍数计算的。36 基本奖励本身是由网络上活跃的验证者的数量(“总活跃质押”)决定的,并动态调整以激励一个理想规模的验证者集合。

验证者可以通过证明(或准确投票)(i)正确的来源;(ii)正确的目标;(iii)正确的区块头(统称为“准确性奖励”),以及(iv)将他们的证明(他们的投票)纳入区块(“纳入奖励”)来获得基本奖励的数倍。纳入奖励也在证明者和验证者之间进行分配,而验证者则是随机选择产生一个区块。

根据研究人员的说法,假设一个固定的基本奖励随着时间的推移,一个验证者的利润主要是由验证者在网络中存入的ETH余额决定的,其上限为32ETH。40

3bii2. 验证者希望从自己的行为中获得质押奖励,而不是从“他人的努力”中获得。

分析质押ETH的经济现实,法院应该发现它不符合Howey案中“他人的努力”这一原则。质押的回报主要是由验证人的个人努力决定的,而不是取决于第三方的任何管理努力。如上所述,验证者的回报主要是由他们所押的ETH数量和他们获得的随机提议区块的机会决定的,这两者都是个体验证者的特异性,不依赖于任何第三方。

换句话说,验证者保留了控制其投资利润的能力。应用Schaden测试,43验证者的控制力首先体现在缺乏信息不对称上;奖励是根据开源协议和公共区块链上记录的交易来分配的。奖励也是根据验证者的时间和努力的贡献来决定的,因为验证者必须最大限度地提高他们的运行时间并保持与网络的连接,以避免被削减。

虽然验证者有时会被激励让其他验证者加入网络(例如,当它会导致基本奖励的增加),并依赖于其他验证者的行动来最大化奖励(例如,证明被传播的要求),但验证者从未像Howey所要求的那样依靠需要技能和判断的“企业家”或 “管理”努力。

4.结论

如上所述,分析在以太坊的权益证明网络上质押ETH的经济现实,法院应该发现质押不能满足Howey测试,因为不存在“共同的企业”,验证人从未依赖“他人的努力”。虽然不是本文的重点,但也有关于存入ETH进行质押是否符合“资金投资 ”的问题。而同样的,不符合Howey四项原则中的任何一项,就意味着该交易不是投资合同,因此不是证券交易。

但除了法律分析之外,将美国证券法规定的严格要求适用于质押将导致法律的不适应和荒谬的应用。正如我们所指出的,证券监管的一个存在理由是通过披露来改善发起人和投资者之间存在的信息不对称问题。因此,将ETH的质押视为投资合同将导致对“发行人”或“发起人”施加披露义务。

正如我们上面所说,在质押ETH时不存在可识别的发行人或发起人。但是,如果我们接受验证人扮演发起人或发行人角色的前提,那么参加注册、报告和披露要求的明显不合理性就变得很明显。证券法会不会强制要求验证人向对方提供信息?哪些重大信息会要求验证人披露?这将如何帮助缓解任何信息不对称,以及如何为公众利益服务?回答这些问题的不现实性说明了将证券法应用于验证人的逻辑是有缺陷的:他们并不构成信息披露所要解决的风险。

作者

  • Rodrigo Seira是Paradigm公司的加密货币法律顾问。
  • Amy Aixi Zhang是Paradigm公司的政策顾问。
  • Jake Chervinsky是区块链协会的政策主管,Variant基金的顾问,以及DeFi教育基金的董事会成员。

披露

本内容仅用于提供信息,不应作为法律、商业、投资或税务建议。情况各不相同,人们应该咨询自己的顾问和律师的意见。此处包含的某些信息是从第三方来源获得的。虽然取自被认为是可靠的来源,但作者没有独立核实这些信息,也不对信息的当前或持久的准确性或其对特定情况的适当性作出陈述。对任何证券或数字资产的提及仅用于说明目的,并不构成投资建议或提供投资咨询服务的提议。

引用注解:

  1. See, e.g., Paul Kiernan and Vicky Ge Huang, “Ether’s New ‘Staking’ Model Could Draw SEC Attention,” Wall Street Journal (Sept. 15, 2022), available here. ↩
  2. Securities Act of 1933 §5(a). ↩
  3. Securities Act of 1933 §2(a)(1). ↩
  4. SEC vs. W.J. Howey Co., 328 U.S. at 301 (1946) ↩
  5. See, e.g., SEC vs. W.J. Howey Co., 328 U.S. at 299 (1946) (defining the term “investment contract” to encompass “a flexible rather than a static principle, one that is capable of adaptation to meet the countless and variable schemes devised by those who seek to use the money of other on the promise of profits”). ↩
  6. See, e.g., United Housing Foundation, Inc. v. Forman, 421 U.S. 837 (1975) (holding that when viewed “in terms of their substance (the economic realities of the transaction)” shares of stock in a housing cooperative were not securities) and International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. Daniel, 439 U.S. 551 (1979) (holding that interests in a noncontributory, compulsory pension plan are not an investment contract and, hence, not a security) ↩
  7. See, e.g., Paul Kiernan and Vicky Ge Huang, “Ether’s New ‘Staking’ Model Could Draw SEC Attention,” Wall Street Journal (Sept. 15, 2022), available here. ↩
  8. See, e.g., Adam Levitin, Twitter (Jul. 23, 2022), available here. (“Something no one is talking about: after the Merge, there's will be a strong case that Ether will be a security. The token in any proof of stake system is likely to be a security.”) ↩
  9. While the SEC has argued that the first prong requiring an “investment of money” is typically satisfied (see Framework for “Investment Contract Analysis of Digital Assets” (modified Apr. 3, 2019), available here), the Supreme Court’s opinion in Howey evinces a narrower interpretation of “investment contract” that should not apply to the staking of ETH. While the Court notes that an “investment contract” is a flexible term that can apply to a variety of contracts, transactions and schemes, its purpose is to capture those “who seek the use of the money of others on the promise of profits.” When staking ETH, no investor is giving capital to any promoter or issuer because no promoter or issuer exists to use the money, or promise any profits. ↩
  10. SEC vs. W.J. Howey Co., 328 U.S. 293 (1946). Despite the Supreme Court’s clear language in Howey, the SEC has taken the position that "common enterprise" is not a distinct element of the term "investment contract." ↩
  11. See, e.g., Salcer v. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc., 682 F.2d 459 (3rd Cir. 1982); Milnarik v. M.S. Commodities, Inc., 457 F.2d 274 (7th Cir. 1972). ↩
  12. See, e.g., Mechigian v. Art Capital Corp., 612 F. Supp. 1421, 1427 (S.D.N.Y. 1985); Dooner v. NMI Limited, 725 F. Supp. 153, 159 (S.D.N.Y. 1989) ↩
  13. Revak v. SEC Realty Corp., 18 F.3d. 81, 87-88 (2d Cir. 1994). See also “‘[H]orizontal commonality requires a sharing or pooling of funds.’” Id. (quoting Hart v. Pulte Homes of Michigan Corp., 735 F.2d 1001, 1004 (6th Cir. 1984)); Wals v. Fox Hills Dev. Corp., 24 F.3d 1016, 1019 (7th Cir. 1994) (A “pooling of profits” is also “essential to horizontal commonality.”) ↩
  14. See, e.g., Howey, 328 U.S. at 300 (“The investors provide the capital and share in the earnings and profits; the promoters manage, control and operate the enterprise.”) ↩
  15. See, e.g., Hart v. Pulte Homes of Michigan Corp., 735 F.2d 1001, 1004 (6th Cir. 1984) (noting horizontal commonality requires “the fortunes of individual purchasers [to be] ‘inextricably intertwined’ by contractual or financial arrangements.”); Curran v. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc., 622 F.2d 216, 224 (6th Cir. 1980), aff’d on other grounds, 456 U.S. 353 (1982) (“no horizontal common enterprise can exist unless there...exists between [the investors] themselves some relationship which ties the fortunes of each investor to the success of the overall venture.”) (emphasis added). ↩
  16. See, e.g., Hocking v. Dubois, 885 F.2d 1449, 1459 (9th Cir. 1989) (en banc) (horizontal commonality requires investors to “give up any claim to profits or losses attributable to their particular investments in return for a pro rata share of the profits of the enterprise”). ↩
  17. Adam Levitin, Twitter (Jul. 23, 2022), available here (“The common enterprise element is also readily met with staking: the whole validation system requires multiple parties. That's the pooling (i.e., the more demanding interpretation of common enterprise--horizontal commonality). 4/”) ↩
  18. Adam Levitin, Twitter (Sept. 16, 2022), available here (“(2) Common enterprise: in PoS, the validators have to work cooperatively with other validators. A single node has to work with 127 others in a committee in ETH. That's different than in PoW, where miners are competing, not cooperating. 3/”) ↩
  19. See Etherscan, “Contract 0x00000000219ab540356cBB839Cbe05303d7705Fa” (last visited Oct. 5, 2022), available here. See also, Ethereum, “Deposit Contract” (last visited Sept. 25, 2022), available here. ↩
  20. See, e.g., Revak, 18 F.3d at 88 (holding that condominium owners using same rental agency had not pooled their funds because “rents and expenses attributable to each unit were not shared” among all owners.) ↩
  21. Id.
  22. Id. at 81, 87-88. ↩
  23. See generally, Marc Boiron, “Sufficient Decentralization: A Playbook for web3 Builders and Lawyers,” available here. ↩
  24. Revak, 18 F.3d at 88. ↩
  25. 328 U.S. at 298 (emphasis added). ↩
  26. Maritan v. Birmingham Props., 875 F.2d 1451, 1457 (10th Cir. 1989) ↩
  27. SEC v. Glenn W. Turner Enterprises, Inc., 474 F.2d 476 (9th Cir. 1973) (emphasis added); see also, SEC v. Koscot Interplanetary, Inc., 497 F.2d 473 (5th Cir. 1974). ↩
  28. SEC Strategic Hub for Innovation and Financial Technology, “Framework for ‘Investment Contract’ Analysis of Digital Assets,” (April 3, 2019), available here. (emphasis added) ↩
  29. See also Steinhardt Group, Inc. v. Citicorp, 126 F.3d 144, 152 (3rd Cir. 1997) (holding that due to limited partner’s “pervasive control over its investment in the limited partnership,” no investment contract is present); see also, Robinson v. Glynn, 349 F.3d 166 (4th Cir. 2003) (interests in limited liability company deemed not an investment contract do to investor’s active managerial input). ↩
  30. But see, Report of Investigation Pursuant to Section 21(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934: The DAO (Exchange Act Rel. No. 81207) (July 25, 2017) (although DAO token holders had certain voting rights, they nonetheless reasonably relied on the managerial efforts of others); SEC v. Koscot Interplanetary, Inc., 497 F.2d 473, 483 n.15 (5th Cir. 1974) ("nominal or limited responsibilities to the [investor] does not negate the existence of an investment contract.") ↩
  31. Foxfield v. Robben 967 F.3d 1082 (10th Cir. 2020), articulating the “ability to control” Schaden factors test set forth in Avenue Capital Management II, L.P. v. Schaden, 843 F.3d 876 (10th Cir. 2016). ↩
  32. Adam Levitin, Twitter (Jul. 23, 2022), available here. (“The key is the switch from competition to cooperation in PoW to PoS. There's lots of good things about that, but it has a securities regulation impact.”) ↩
  33. Adam Levitin, Twitter (Sept. 16, 2022), available here.(“(3) Expectation of profit from the efforts of others: in PoS the validators make or lose money based on successful (timely) validation. That requires the efforts of others in the committee. 4/”) ↩
  34. Vitalik Buterin et al, “Combining GHOST and Casper,” (May 20, 2020), available here. (“Committees: the validators are partitioned into committees in each epoch, with one committee per slot. In each slot, one validator from the designated committee proposes a block. Then, all the members of that committee will attest to what they see as the head of the chain (which is hopefully the block just proposed) with the fork-choice rule HLMD GHOST (a slight variation of LMD GHOST).”) ↩
  35. Id.
  36. Pintail, “Beacon Chain Validator Rewards,” (last seen Sept. 23, 2022), available here. ↩
  37. “If there aren’t many validators, the protocol needs to offer a high return, to encourage more validators to join. However if there is already a large number of validators, the protocol can afford to pay less, and save on issuance. The function which does this for the beacon chain is an inverse square root — that is, the level of the reward is divided by the square root of currently validating Ether (the reasoning for choosing an inverse square root relationship is explained in Vitalik Buterin’s design rationale document).” Id.
  38. Ethereum Launchpad, “Validator FAQs,” (last visited Oct. 5, 2022), available here. ↩
  39. “For every slot (a slot is 12 seconds — there are 32 slots in an epoch), one validator, chosen at random, is responsible for producing a block. The block is made up of beacon chain attestations submitted by the other validators, and the block producer is rewarded with a proportion of all the inclusion rewards from attestations in the block.” Pintail, “Beacon Chain Validator Rewards,” (last seen Sept. 23, 2022), available here. ↩
  40. Pintail, “Beacon Chain Validator Rewards.” ↩
  41. Ethereum Launchpad, “Validator FAQs.” ↩
  42. Pintail, “Beacon Chain Validator Rewards.” ↩
  43. Foxfield v. Robben 967 F.3d 1082 (10th Cir. 2020), articulating the “ability to control” Schaden test set forth in Avenue Capital Management II, L.P. v. Schaden, 843 F.3d 876 (10th Cir. 2016). ↩

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